Mar Ngok Summer Teachings 2024: The Origins of Secret Mantra Day 2
27 July 2024
The Languages of Early Buddhism
His Holiness began by addressing the issue of which languages were used in Early Buddhism, specifically at the First Council when the Sūtra-Piṭaka and the Vinaya-Piṭaka. were compiled.
This has always been a difficult problem encountered by researchers of Indian Buddhist history. Generally, there are three different approaches from which one can infer which language might have been used. One way is to try to deduce it from extant ancient Indian Buddhist texts. A second is to look at the language used in Magadha at that time, and a third way is to examine the language used to teach the Dharma.
The ancient Buddhist texts extant today come primarily from the period of Nikāya Buddhism, and they use different languages. At that time, there were four main schools, the four root schools as they are called in the Tibetan tradition, though modern researchers contest this and maintain there were only two root schools. The Mahāsāṃghika school flourished in Maharashtra, south-west India, and used the prakrit or vernacular language of that region. The Vibhajyavāda school (a branch of Sthaviravāda) developed in the western region of Śūrasena and used Paiśācī. The Saṃmitīya school, which was the most popular school in western India, was based around Mathurā, and used the Śūrasena-Apabhraṃśa language. The Sarvāstivāda school, centred on Kashmir and Gāndhāra in the northwest, used Sanskrit as the language of their scriptures.
The distinctive characteristics and philosophy of these four schools were established somewhat later in this period. It seems that Pali is older than many of the vernaculars, and was probably the earliest language used. This is backed up by the archaeological evidence. When fragments of ancient texts, written in the vernacular, are compared with extant versions of the Dhammapada in Sanskrit and Pali, it suggests that Pali is the older language.
However, this does not necessarily prove that Pali was the language used at the First Council. In the fifth century CE, Buddhaghosa argued that Pali was the same language as Māgadhī, the vernacular in Magadha, the region around Bodhgaya. He called it the ‘root language’ and claimed the Buddha taught in it and that it was used at the First Council. This is the tradition of the southern transmission schools of Buddhism, but most modern scholars contest this and hold that the two languages are very different. Both are vernaculars but Pali is actually a dialect from western India, whereas Māgadhī is a language from central India. Moreover, some suggest that since Buddhism was spread to Sri Lanka by Mahendra from Magadha, the language of the scriptures must have been the ancient dialect of his native region, the region of Vidiśā in the southwestern part of central India.
The second approach is to look at the place where the First Council was held, Magadha, in central India. At that time, Magadha was the most powerful and wealthiest kingdom, as well as the main region where the Buddha taught. Consequently, most researchers believe that ancient Māgadhī was the language used at the First Council. The edicts of the Emperor Ashoka, evidence the existence of a lingua franca in eastern India, alongside the vernaculars. In light of this, a few scholars have suggested that Māgadhī was a lingua franca in central and eastern India that the Buddha used for his teaching, and that it was also used at the First Council. Others refute this view because of the time difference—Ashoka was born either 100 or 200 years after the Buddha depending on which tradition you follow— and the changes brought about by the transformation of Magadha under Ashoka into a major power across India. It is quite possible that during Ashoka’s reign, Māgadhī became the language of state, the lingua franca across his empire. Some people also argue that the language the Buddha taught Dharma in was not ancient Māgadhī but ancient Ardhamāgadhī, or that he taught in both.
The third approach is to hypothesise which language the Buddha used for teaching the Dharma. Languages in India during the time of the Buddha were diverse, depending on region caste, and era. The higher castes like Brahmins and Kshatriyas spoke a refined language—i.e., Sanskrit, the well-formed language—whereas the lower castes spoke the different vernaculars corresponding to their own level.
So, when the Buddha taught, he probably didn’t use Sanskrit much at all, but used different vernaculars, adjusting his language to the people he was teaching so that they could understand. The evidence for this is in the Four Āgamas where a citation shows the Buddha rebuked attempts to unify the language of preaching. A story in the Cullavagga of the Pali Vinaya-Piṭaka, tells how two bhikkhus, Yameḷa and Kekuṭa , both born in the Brahmin caste, protested to the Buddha that within the sangha, monks from different areas and different castes continued to use their native languages. They recited the words of the Buddha and discussed the Dharma in their prakrits. Yameḷa and Kekuṭa viewed these languages as inferior and thought that using them was corrupting the Buddha’s sacred words. They suggested that only Sanskrit should be used. The Buddha scolded them, “Monks, the Buddha’s words should not be put into the language of the upper class. Whoever should do so would be guilty of a downfall. Monks, learn the Buddha’s words in your own dialects.”
In contrast to the Brahmanic custom of concentrating on metre and melody when reciting the Vedas, accompanying the recitation with specific arm and hand
gestures, the Buddha emphasised meaning and understanding. In the Vinayamātṛkā-Sūtra it says:
The Buddha told the bhikshus: In my Buddhist teachings, we do not consider the poetic metre to be most important. My intention is that the meaning is not lost. Teach it according to the languages that beings can understand. Therefore, adapt to the customs of each country.
The Dharmaguptaka-Vinaya reinforces this:
The Buddha said: ‘Recite the Buddha’s sutras as they are understood according to the language and custom of each region and tradition.
This point is further illustrated by the story of two Brahmin boys, Devadatta and Gopaka, who were ordained by Shariputra. He taught them the sutras, and then they went traveling. However, because of their Brahmanic background, they recited the Buddha’s words in poetic language and used melodies. Devadatta died and, grief-stricken, Gopaka forgot how to recite the texts. He returned to Śrāvastī, and requested the elder Kauṇḍinya to teach him the texts. Critical of Kauṇḍinya’s recitation style, Gopaka complained, “Venerable, when you recite, your pronunciation is not clear and your phrasing is not long, so your recitation of the scriptures is not good.” He then went to nine other elders, and finally back to Shariputra, who recited with proper poetry and melody. Gopati declared, “Abbot, the other bhikshus do not know how to recite properly. Only you recite properly.” Shariputra scolded him, saying, “You fool! It’s you who doesn’t know how to recite. The bhikshus all recite well.”
When questioned about this incident, the Buddha ruled that even reciting the scriptures with a Vedic melody and metre was an infraction unless it was the local custom, in which case no downfall was incurred.
During the First Council, Mahākāśyapa’s main objective was to preserve the teachings in the same form as the Buddha had taught them, and from this perspective, it is quite possible that the Dharma the Buddha taught in multiple languages would not have been compiled in a single language.
The Development of the Scriptures in Early Buddhism
During the First Council, the Sūtra-Piṭaka and Vinaya-Piṭaka were initially compiled but neither the Abhidharma nor the treatises, only the seeds of the Abhidharma Piṭaka. The latter were probably compiled at the time of the Second Council, so the complete set of three baskets only existed after the time of the Second Council.
Āgama and Nikāya
In Early Buddhism the Sūtra-Piṭaka was known as the Āgama (we deduce this from the extant Chinese texts which use the terms “ā hán” or “ā hán jīng”, the Chinese phonetics for āgama). The word means “transmission,” or “where the dharma is passed down from.” It’s the equivalent of the Tibetan word “lung”. It refers to the words the Buddha spoke, meaning they are authoritative, true, in accord with the nature of things, and believable, and that the Buddha actually spoke them. All the Buddha’s words may be included in this. In Pali it was known as the Nikāya, meaning a “collection, section, category, or compilation”. The Pañca-Nikāya is a collection of these compilations. Hence, the terms Āgama and Nikāya are synonymous.
Two main transmissions of the Sūtra-Piṭaka from early Buddhism are extant, one in Pali and one in Chinese. What are their primary characteristics and differences?
During the time of Emperor Ashoka, Mahendra (who is said to have been his son) spread the dharma in Sri Lanka. These teachings, transmitted in Pali, include the Dīgha-Nikāya (The Long Discourses), Majjhima-Nikāya (Middle-Length Discourses), Saṃyutta-Nikāya (Connected Discourses), Aṅguttara-Nikāya (Numerical Discourses), and the Khuddaka-Nikāya (The Minor Discourses). Together they are called the Pañca-Nikāya. To this day, these five Nikāyas form the foundation of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. According to the Japanese scholar Hirakawa Akira, these Pali scriptures are from the Vibhajjavādin sub-sect of the Sthaviravāda (Pali: Theravāda) school. They are in the ancient language of the southwest Indian region of Vidiśā. This region was the birthplace of Mahendra’s mother, and it was the Buddhism of this region that Mahendra brought to Sri Lanka.
The sutras translated into Chinese —the four Āgamas—were either primarily transmitted through Central Asia to China or via the Indian Ocean to present day Guandong Province. They are basically the same as the Pali Nikāya and mostly similar in content and meaning. They are the Long Discourses (Dīrgha-Āgama);
Middle-Length Discourses (Madhyama-Āgama); Connected Discourses (Saṃyukta-Āgama); and the Numerical Discourses (Ekottara-Āgama).
In the Pali tradition:
The Dīgha-Nikāya (Long Discourses) has three parts, and 34 different suttas.
The Majjhima-Nikāya (Middle-length Discourses): has15 parts, with 152 different
suttas, 98 of which are the same as in the Chinese translation.
The Saṃyutta-Nikāya (Connected Discourses) has 56 connected series, basically
56 chapters in 2,889 sutras.
The Aṅguttara-Nikāya (Numerical Discourses) has 11 parts, numbered as 1-11
dharmas, 171 chapters, and 2,203 sutras. (An alternative explanation is that it has
17 chapters, and either 2,188 suttas, or 2,388 suttas).
The Khuddaka-Nikāya (Minor Discourses) has15 sets of suttas.
In the Chinese tradition:
The Dīrgha-Āgama (Long Discourses): has 22 volumes, 30 Sutras. It comes from the
Dharmaguptaka tradition and was translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fo Nian.
The Madhyama-Āgama (Middle-Length Discourses): has 60 volumes and 222 sutras.
Among the 18 schools, it is from the Sarvāstivāda tradition, and it was translated
during the Eastern Jin dynasty by the Indian master Saṃghadeva
The Saṃyukta-Āgama (Connected Discourses): has 50 volumes and 1,362 sutras.
That is also from the Sarvāstivāda, and was translated by the Indian master
Guṇabhadra during the Liu Song dynasty.
The Ekottara-Āgama (Numerical Discourses): has 51 volumes, and over 1,000 sutras.
As in the Pali, it is divided into numbered 1 to 11 dharmas. The translator was
Saṃghadeva from the Eastern Jin dynasty.
Though basically the same in form and content, there are differences between the
two. Changes may have occurred during their transmission over time. The Pali
schools were more complete and all five nikāyas are from the Vibhajjavādin school
of the Theravāda, whereas the Chinese āgama are drawn from different schools
rather than from a single tradition.
The Four Āgamas in more detail
1.The Connected Discourses (Saṃyukta-Āgama)
The name has the same meaning in both traditions, but the Chinese text contains 1362 sutras, whereas there are 2880 in the Pali. The content of both is similar. It includes the five aggregates, twelve sense bases, eighteen elements, and the twelve links of interdependence; as well as topics related to practice such as the four foundations of mindfulness, four abandonments, the four feats of miracles, five faculties, five powers, seven factors of enlightenment, the eight branches of the noble path and so forth. It is a compilation of the teachings of the Buddha himself or of his direct disciples. In terms of their organization, the stages are so clearly defined, easy and straightforward, that they seem deliberately not too complicated for those meditating on samadhi.
2.The Middle-Length Discourses (Madhyama-Āgama)
It contains 222 sutras in the Chinese, but 152 sutras in Pali. It continues to explore the topics discussed in the Connected Discourses; there are presentations on the four truths, the elements, karma, and so forth. There are also the analytic sutras (vibhaṅga). At that time there was no separate Abhidharma and the analytic sutras are like the seeds or the basic scriptural foundations of the future Abhidharma pitaka. The Middle-Length Discourses discusses egolessness, dhyana meditation, the deeds of the Buddha related to his initial awakening, and also what he did immediately afterwards. There are sutras such as the Gosiṅgasāla-Sūtra, which primarily contains teachings on the ultimate nature. It relates how the Buddha’s great disciples including Shariputra, Maudgalyayana, and Mahakashyapa gathered in a grove of Sala trees, filled with the scent of flowers and moonlight, and discussed how one should analyse and practise the path of the ultimate truth. In ancient times, this was identified as the philosophy of the profound meaning.
3. The Long Discourses (Dīrgha-Āgama)
This is the shortest collection, consisting of 30 sutras, but the sutras are very long and in prose, hence the name “Long Discourses.” It contains sutras in which the Buddha criticizes non-Buddhist philosophies of his time, and includes the Sutra of Brahma’s Net (Brahmajāla-Sūtra)—also extant in Tibetan translation— and the Sutra of the Results of the Spiritual Way (Śrāmaṇaphala-Sūtra, Sāmaññaphala-Sutta). It includes the Sutra of the Great Parinirvana (Mahāparinirvāṇa-Sūtra) that describes the time from the Buddha’s eightieth year until his parinirvana, as well as other events around that time. It also includes the Great Discourse on Causation (Mahānidāna-Sūtra), which describes the thought during the initial spread of Buddhism.
4. The Numerical Discourses (Ekottara-Āgama)
It gets its name because it teaches categories of dharmas from one to eleven, like a dictionary. It contains 472 sutras of varying length. Traditionally it was said that among the Four Āgamas, the Connected and Middle-Length Discourses are from the Sarvāstivāda school while the Numerical Discourses are from the Mahāsāṃghika school. Thus, the Numerical Discourses would have had a great influence on the Mahāyāna. In this text we find a lot of discussion of the dharmakāya as well as life stories that explain the characters of the Buddha’s great disciples. The Pali Numerical Discourses has 2363 sutras, while the Chinese translation is not even half that length, which suggests that there may have been some mix-up at some point. The extant Pali text has no discussion of the dharmakāya whereas the Chinese text has quite a bit.
Compiling the Four Āgamas
Traditionally, it is taught that the sutras of the Four Āgamas were compiled at the First Council, but most modern academics disagree and think that the organisation of these scriptures was made during the Second Council.
The Chinese master Shì yìn shùn wrote, “What was initially compiled (in the First Council) did not have four parts, nor was it called by the name Āgamas, but it was like the basis for the Four Āgamas.”
Some also believe that only the Connected Discourses (Saṃyukta-Āgama) were compiled at the First Council. The other three Āgamas developed gradually and all Four Āgamas were complete by the Second Council.
To establish the order in which the Four Āgamas appeared, scholars use the reasoning that the contents of the texts would have progressed from simple to
complex. Master Shengyan writes, “Among the Four Agamas, one can discern the following: The Connected Discourses are simple in style and plain. The Middle-Length Discourses are close to that, but when we come to the Long Discourses and Numerical Discourses, the style has gone from simple to elaborate and from unelaborate to extravagant.”
Analyzing the contents of the Four Āgamas, the Connected Discourses has the least content, is written simply, and the content is very straightforward. This indicates that it was the first to appear. Next would be the Middle-Length Discourses, which are similar in content and style to the Connected Discourses. Finally, the Long Discourses and Numerical Discourses are much more complex in style and content.
There are counter-arguments to this hypothesis. Firstly, it is possible for simplicity and complexity to coexist. It is also possible that what might have started complex became simpler over time. Finally, the original form and style may not have been what we have today.
One important point is that most ancient Buddhist scriptures teach that the Four Āgamas were compiled in full during the First Council. In fact, the First Council primarily compiled the sutras and Vinaya whereas the Second Council was mainly concerned with purifying the Vinaya; there is no discussion of the Second Council also compiling more sutras. If these accounts are true, then it is certain that the basis of the Four Āgamas must have been determined during the First Council.
In Pali there are five Nikāyas including the Khuddaka-Nikāya (Minor Discourses), whereas in the Chinese tradition there are only four Āgamas. Therefore, it is also quite possible that there was a collection of minor sutras compiled at the First Council making a total of five Āgamas. The Sarvāstivāda school speaks only of four Āgamas, whereas most of the other schools accept five. It does not accept the set of Minor Discourses.
The classification principles for the Four Āgamas are basically consistent across different schools. The Mahāsāṃghika-Vinaya, preserved in Chinese translation, states:
Points of different types were compiled into the Connected Discourses. This
includes points of all kinds, including the faculties, powers, enlightenment, the
path, and so forth. The Long and Middle-Length were divided based on the
length of the text. Various lists were compiled according to the number of items
and arranged in numerical order, giving the Numerical Discourses.
There are many other sutras that are not included in the Four Āgamas, many partial sutras, or other short sutras that are not included. Some of the individual sutras are also in Tibetan. Though the complete Four Āgamas do not exist in the Tibetan canon, individual sutras do.
An Introduction to the Minor Discourses of the Pāli Sutta-Piṭaka
A fifth set of discourses —the Minor Discourses— not included in the Four Āgamas, has been preserved in its complete form in Pali.
1. Khuddakapāṭha (Short Passages): these are the texts recited by Theravadan monks.
2. Dhammapada (Dharma Verses)
3. Udāna (Inspired Utterance)
4. Itivuttaka (As It Was Said)
5. Suttanipāta (Section of the Sutras)
6. Vimānavatthu (Stories of Divine Mansions)
7. Petavatthu (Stories of Hungry Ghosts)
8. Theragāthā (Verses of Elder Monks)
9. Therīgāthā (Verses of Elder Nuns)
10. Jātaka Tales
11. Niddesa (Teachings)
12. Paṭisambhidāmagga (Path of Discrimination)
13. Apadāna (Biographical Stories)
14. Buddhavaṁsa (Chronicle of Buddhas): about the kinds of buddhas
15. Cariyāpiṭaka (The Basket of Deeds)
Some parts of these texts, like the Section of the Sutras, the Dhammapada, and the Inspired Utterance, the Verses of the Elder Monks, the Verses of the Elder Nuns, and the Jātaka tales, are also found in the Four Āgamas.
These texts are very, very early and it is possible that most of them originated during the Buddha’s lifetime. Because they are cited in the Āgamas, we know that these Pali texts predate the Āgamas, and, for this reason, scholars who research Early Buddhism value them more than the Four Āgamas. These texts can give us a really unique perspective on learning more about the earliest Buddhist thought, especially through the Dhammapada, the Udāna and the Verses of the Elder Monks and Nuns.
Pali Texts in Translation
The Karmapa drew attention to the existence of many sutras in Chinese that are like these ancient Pali sutras. Not only that, but the Great Collection of Southern Buddhism that was translated into Chinese includes both the Pāli Sutta-Piṭaka and Vinaya-Piṭaka. This makes it easy to research them. But they have yet to be translated into Tibetan. Even the Four Āgamas in their entirety have yet to be translated into Tibetan. Only a few passages exist in Tibetan. Likewise, the Pali Five Nikāyas have not been translated into Tibetan. However, the Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies in Varanasi is translating the Long Discourses, so in the future we can have some hope of reading the scriptures that have been preserved in Pali.
He concluded with a summary of Pali texts from the Minor Discourses which were translated into Tibetan or into Chinese.
